Machine and Deep Learning for Wetland Mapping and Bird-Habitat Monitoring: A Systematic Review of Remote-Sensing Applications (2015–April 2025)

Marwa Zerrouk, Kenza Ait El Kadi, Imane Sebari, Siham Fellahi

Wetlands, among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, shelter a diversity of species and help maintain ecological balance. However, they are witnessing growing anthropogenic and climatic threats, which underscores the need for regular and long-term monitoring. This study presents a systematic review of 121 peer-reviewed articles published between January 2015 and 30 April 2025 that applied machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) for wetland mapping and bird-habitat monitoring. Despite rising interest, applications remain fragmented, especially for avian habitats; only 39 studies considered birds, and fewer explicitly framed wetlands as bird habitats. Following PRISMA 2020 and the SPIDER framework, we compare data sources, classification methods, validation practices, geographic focus, and wetland types. ML is predominant overall, with random forest the most common baseline, while DL (e.g., U-Net and Transformer variants) is underused relative to its broader land cover adoption. Where reported, DL shows a modest but consistent accuracy over ML for complex wetland mapping; this accuracy improves when fusing synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and optical data. Validation still relies mainly on overall accuracy (OA) and Kappa coefficient (κ), with limited class-wise metrics. Salt marshes and mangroves dominate thematically, and China geographically, whereas peatlands, urban marshes, tundra, and many regions (e.g., Africa and South America) remain underrepresented. Multi-source fusion is beneficial yet not routine; The combination of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and DL is promising for fine-scale avian micro-habitats but constrained by disturbance and labeling costs. We then conclude with actionable recommendations to enable more robust and scalable monitoring. This review can be considered as the first comparative synthesis of ML/DL methods applied to wetland mapping and bird-habitat monitoring, and highlights the need for more diverse, transferable, and ecologically/socially integrated AI applications in wetland and bird-habitat monitoring.