A Review on the Detection of Plant Disease Using Machine Learning and Deep Learning Approaches

Thandiwe Nyawose, Rito Clifford Maswanganyi, Philani Khumalo

The early and accurate detection of plant diseases is essential for ensuring food security, enhancing crop yields, and facilitating precision agriculture. Manual methods are labour-intensive and prone to error, especially under varying environmental conditions. Artificial intelligence (AI), particularly machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), has advanced automated disease identification through image classification. However, challenges persist, including limited generalisability, small and imbalanced datasets, and poor real-world performance. Unlike previous reviews, this paper critically evaluates model performance in both lab and real-time field conditions, emphasising robustness, generalisation, and suitability for edge deployment. It introduces recent architectures such as GreenViT, hybrid ViT–CNN models, and YOLO-based single- and two-stage detectors, comparing their accuracy, inference speed, and hardware efficiency. The review discusses multimodal and self-supervised learning techniques to enhance detection in complex environments, highlighting key limitations, including reliance on handcrafted features, overfitting, and sensitivity to environmental noise. Strengths and weaknesses of models across diverse datasets are analysed with a focus on real-time agricultural applicability. The paper concludes by identifying research gaps and outlining future directions, including the development of lightweight architectures, integration with Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Networks (DCGANs), and improved dataset diversity for real-world deployment in precision agriculture.